See an archive of all immanuel kant stories published on the New York Media network, which includes NYMag, The Cut, Vulture, and Grub Street. Эммануэль Кант, 07.08.2001. Доступны для просмотра фотографии, лайки, образование. Posts about Emmanuel Kant written by Jack Marshall.
Scholz “forbade” Putin from quoting Immanuel Kant
Hayek have regarded themselves as Kantians. It may come as a surprise to many libertarians and Objectivists to learn that Rand and Peikoff were not the first to link Immanuel Kant to Nazism. In this book of nearly 700 pages, McGovern wrote: In each and every case the spread of idealist doctrines in the spheres of philosophy, or history, or law, or general literature coincided with the belief in either etatism [i. A great many persons who had formerly been staunch advocates of individualism and democracy were so won over by the charm of idealist theories regarding life as a whole that they began to champion the idealist doctrine in the field of politics. It was thus in large measure due to the work of the idealist philosophers and their immediate disciples that the absolutist we may as well say Fascist tradition was revived in nineteenth century Europe.
The idealists owed much of their success in the political field to the subtlety of their methods. They were able to revive faith in etatism and authoritarianism largely because they were able to give both these doctrines such a new and attractive dress that they were scarcely recognizable at first sight.
It is the twofold aim of the Critique both to prove and to explain the possibility of this knowledge. In general terms, the former is a non-discursive representation of a particular object, and the latter is a discursive or mediate representation of a general type of object. Knowledge generated on this basis, under certain conditions, can be synthetic a priori.
In this "transcendental dialectic", Kant argues that many of the claims of traditional rationalist metaphysics violate the criteria he claims to establish in the first, "constructive" part of his book. Something is "transcendental" if it is a necessary condition for the possibility of experience, and "idealism" denotes some form of mind-dependence that must be further specified. It argues that all genuine knowledge requires a sensory component, and thus that metaphysical claims that transcend the possibility of sensory confirmation can never amount to knowledge. On this particular view, the thing-in-itself is not numerically identical the phenomenal empirical object. Kant also spoke of the thing in itself or transcendent object as a product of the human understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility.
Following this line of thought, some interpreters argue that the thing in itself does not represent a separate ontological domain but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone; this is known as the "two-aspect" view. Whereas the former was concerned with the contributions of the sensibility, the latter is concerned, first, with the contributions of the understanding "Transcendental Analytic" and, second, with the faculty of reason as the source of both metaphysical errors and genuine regulatory principles "Transcendental Dialectic". The "Transcendental Analytic" is further divided into two sections. The first, "Analytic of Concepts", is concerned with establishing the universality and necessity of the pure concepts of the understanding i. The second, "Analytic of Principles", is concerned with the application of those pure concepts in empirical judgments.
This second section is longer than the first and is further divided into many sub-sections. These twelve basic categories define what it is to be a thing in general—that is, they articulate the necessary conditions according to which something is a possible object of experience. These, in conjunction with the a priori forms of intuition, are the basis of all synthetic a priori cognition. The first, known as the "metaphysical deduction", proceeds analytically from a table of the Aristotelian logical functions of judgment. As Kant was aware, this assumes precisely what the skeptic rejects, namely, the existence of synthetic a priori cognition.
For this reason, Kant also supplies a synthetic argument that does not depend upon the assumption in dispute. Kant himself said that it is the one that cost him the most labor. The task of the "Analytic of Principles" is to show both that they must universally apply to objects given in actual experience i. The second book continues this line of argument in four chapters, each associated with one of the category groupings. In some cases, it adds a connection to the spatial dimension of intuition to the categories it analyzes.
Some commentators consider this the most significant section of the Critique. He argues that the unity of time implies that "all change must consist in the alteration of states in an underlying substance, whose existence and quantity must be unchangeable or conserved. That was the end of the chapter in the A edition of the Critique. The B edition includes one more short section, "The Refutation of Idealism". In this section, by analysis of the concept of self-consciousness, Kant argues that his transcendental idealism is a "critical" or "formal" idealism that does not deny the existence of reality apart from our subjective representations.
Against this, Kant reasserts his own insistence upon the necessity of a sensible component in all genuine knowledge. In particular, it is concerned to demonstrate as spurious the efforts of reason to arrive at knowledge independent of sensibility. This endeavor, Kant argues, is doomed to failure, which he claims to demonstrate by showing that reason, unbounded by sense, is always capable of generating opposing or otherwise incompatible conclusions. Like "the light dove, in free flight cutting through the air, the resistance of which it feels", reason "could get the idea that it could do even better in airless space".
He did not fail his dark masters. Remember last year when it seemed like the Oscars were racist? The group was escorted through the back doors of the Kodak Theater with no idea what was in store, as Kimmel had the house lights turned down. When the tourists—Awww, ordinary slobs!
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Голосование "Великие имена": в самолётах Канта уже называют "Эммануилом"
К сожалению, неизвестно, какой именно факультет окончил будущий философ. В то время в университете существовало четыре направления подготовки: юридический, медицинский, биологический и философский. Когда молодой человек завершил учебу, его мать умерла, а отец жил в бедности. Кант подрабатывал, давая частные уроки. Ему также помогали друзья и родственники. По некоторым данным, дядя Иммануила взял на себя расходы по публикации дебютной работы Канта — «Мысли об истинной оценке живых сил». Это произведение автор писал три года, и оно увидело свет в 1749 году.
Работы Канта вдохновили следующие поколения философов и даже Альберта Эйнштейна. Сам Иммануил Кант был увлеченным своим делом ученым, талантливым преподавателем и эксцентричным, но при этом общительным человеком. О занимательных фактах из его биографии рассказываем в нашем материале. Не любил учебу в гимназии Родители отдали маленького Иммануила в обычную школу на окраине города. Однако друг семьи, немецкий богослов Франц Шульц, отметил способности мальчика и порекомендовал перевести его в престижную гимназию «Фридрихс-Коллегиум». А отучившись здесь, можно было рассчитывать на высокие должности в церкви и государственных учреждениях. Иммануил Кант изучал в гимназии древние языки, Библию, философию, древнегреческую литературу, теологию, логику. Школа отнимала почти все его время, а на протяжении учебного года у него был всего один выходной в неделю — воскресенье. Практически по всем предметам будущий философ имел высокие баллы. При этом воспоминания о годах в гимназии были не самыми приятными. Уже будучи взрослым, Кант сравнивал свое обучение с рабством, а также критиковал жестокость учителей, от которых доставалось его одноклассникам. Начал писать свою первую работу в 20 лет Один из главных трудов Канта — «Критика чистого разума» — вышел в 1781 году, когда автору было уже 57 лет. А вот свою первую работу мыслитель начал еще в 1744-м. Она называлась «Мысли об истинной оценке живых сил», и в ней Кант вступил в полемику с Декартом и Лейбницем.
Лоран Канте родился в 1961 году в семье школьных учителей, киноискусство он изучал сначала в Марселе, а потом — в парижской Высшей школе кинематографистов. В 2008 году режиссёр получил "Золотую пальмовую ветвь" за картину "Класс", снятую по роману Франсуа Бегодо "Между стен" о жизни учителя одной из школ Парижа.
The B edition includes one more short section, "The Refutation of Idealism". In this section, by analysis of the concept of self-consciousness, Kant argues that his transcendental idealism is a "critical" or "formal" idealism that does not deny the existence of reality apart from our subjective representations. Against this, Kant reasserts his own insistence upon the necessity of a sensible component in all genuine knowledge. In particular, it is concerned to demonstrate as spurious the efforts of reason to arrive at knowledge independent of sensibility. This endeavor, Kant argues, is doomed to failure, which he claims to demonstrate by showing that reason, unbounded by sense, is always capable of generating opposing or otherwise incompatible conclusions. Like "the light dove, in free flight cutting through the air, the resistance of which it feels", reason "could get the idea that it could do even better in airless space". He presents the speculative excesses of traditional metaphysics as inherent in our very capacity of reason. Moreover, he argues that its products are not without some carefully qualified regulative value. They are different from the concepts of understanding in that they are not limited by the critical stricture limiting knowledge to the conditions of possible experience and its objects. Kant replaces the first with the positive results of the first part of the Critique. He proposes to replace the following three with his later doctrines of anthropology, the metaphysical foundations of natural science, and the critical postulation of human freedom and morality. He does this by developing contradictions in each of the three metaphysical disciplines that he contends are in fact pseudosciences. In this context, it not possible to do much more than enumerate the topics of discussion. The first chapter addresses what Kant terms the paralogisms—i. He argues that one cannot take the mere thought of "I" in the proposition "I think" as the proper cognition of "I" as an object. In this way, he claims to debunk various metaphysical theses about the substantiality, unity, and self-identity of the soul. Originally, Kant had thought that all transcendental illusion could be analyzed in antinomic terms. Whereas an idea is a pure concept generated by reason, an ideal is the concept of an idea as an individual thing. In an Appendix to this section, Kant rejects such a conclusion. The ideas of pure reason, he argues, have an important regulatory function in directing and organizing our theoretical and practical inquiry. With regard to morality , Kant argued that the source of the good lies not in anything outside the human subject, either in nature or given by God , but rather is only the good will itself. A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity—understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others—as an end in itself rather than merely as means to other ends the individual might hold. Kant is known for his theory that all moral obligation is grounded in what he calls the " categorical imperative ", which is derived from the concept of duty. He argues that the moral law is a principle of reason itself, not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy; to act on the moral law has no other motive than "worthiness to be happy". Kant finds it a source of difficulty that the practical idea of freedom is founded on the transcendental idea of freedom, [132] but for the sake of practical interests uses the practical meaning, taking "no account of... Reason can give us only the "pragmatic laws of free action through the senses", but pure practical laws given by reason a priori dictate "what is to be done". For Kant, although actions as theoretical objects are constituted by means of the theoretical categories, actions as practical objects objects of practical use of reason, and which can be good or bad are constituted by means of the categories of freedom. Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such. A hypothetical imperative is one that we must obey to satisfy contingent desires. A categorical imperative binds us regardless of our desires: for example, everyone has a duty to respect others as individual ends in themselves, regardless of circumstances, even though it is sometimes in our narrowly selfish interest to not do so. These imperatives are morally binding because of the categorical form of their maxims, rather than contingent facts about an agent.
Emmanuel Kant, no place to chance!
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is the central figure in modern philosophy. He synthesized early modern rationalism and empiricism, set the terms for much of nineteenth and twentieth century philosophy. Когда принималось решение широко отметить 300-летие немецкого философа Иммануила Канта, необходимость интеграции отечественной гуманитарной науки с мировой еще не. Emmanuel Kant слушать лучшее онлайн бесплатно в хорошем качестве на Яндекс Музыке. Сам Иммануил Кант был увлеченным своим делом ученым, талантливым преподавателем и эксцентричным, но при этом общительным человеком.
Immanuel Kant and Nazism
Иммануил Кант родился в Кенигсберге в 1724 году, прожил в городе всю жизнь, не покидая его пределов, и был похоронен у северной стены Собора в профессорском склепе. [–] Emmanuel__Kant 2 points3 points4 points 1 year ago (0 children). I have allways the high cost champion. Новости. Видеоигры. emmanuelle_kant. ·@emmakant·. Loving life.
Immanuel Kant and Nazism
Experts at Emmanuel Kant Baltic Federal University (BFU) believe this would be caused by so-called “acceleration of dark matter”. It is based on three key theories about what impacts dark energy would. О сервисе Прессе Авторские права Связаться с нами Авторам Рекламодателям Разработчикам. Слушайте Doing Nothing with Emmanuel Kant от ParisPiano на Deezer. Благодаря потоковой трансляции музыки на Deezer вы можете слушать более 120 млн треков. Browse Getty Images' premium collection of high-quality, authentic Emmanuel Kant stock photos, royalty-free images, and pictures. Tag: Immanuel Kant. Chris Hedges: The Evil Within Us. March 22, 2021. С анимированным портретом 44-летнего Канта кисти Иоганна Готлиба Беккера теперь старается пообщаться почти каждый экскурсант Кафедрального собора.
Climate change and the environment take a back seat in Emmanuel Macron's speech on Europe
И вот Эммануэль Макрон опять, накануне важных выборов в Европейский парламент, возвращается к своему прославленному стилю. Выступая в зале университета Сорбонна, французский президент говорил на протяжении двух часов. Главной темой его выступления было следующее: Европа должна немедленно реагировать, если хочет выжить в мире, который меняется. Она может умереть. Все зависит от нашего выбора, и сделать его нужно немедленно", — заявил Эммануэль Макрон. Конечно, французский президент просто не может принять тот факт, что Европа меняется, преображаясь в нечто новое. Для него изменения за пределами намеченного пути и есть "смерть". С одной стороны, Макрон — этим он тоже прославился — призывает к укреплению европейской самодостаточности в обороне и экономике.
Иными словами, он призывает к большей независимости от Соединенных Штатов Америки. Ведь то же самое президент Франции говорили и ранее, и именно когда у власти стоял Трамп. Однако когда в 2020 году к власти вернулся представитель типичного американского истеблишмента Джо Байден, у Макрона сразу исчезли претензии и к американскому влиянию в Европе, и к НАТО, которому он больше не приписывал "клиническую смерть". Поскольку нынешнее выступление отнюдь не первая речь Эммануэля Макрона на эту тему, можно заключить, что его позиция очень зависит от того, какая повестка сейчас доминирует, и он, несомненно, склоняется к ней. Кроме того, стоит отметить, что его речь прозвучала всего за несколько недель до выборов в Европейский парламент. Многие полагают, что тем самым Макрон пытается оживить весьма слабую кампанию его партии "Возрождение", которая очень отстает от своего соперника — партии Марин Ле Пен. Макрон: перед нами огромные риски, Европа может умеретьЭммануэль Макрон заявил, что Европа может умереть.
Читатели Haber7 подмечают: французский президент надоел постоянными разговорами о войне и чьей-то гибели. Они припомнили ему "смерть мозга" у НАТО. Иными словами, "Национальное объединение" может обойти партию Макрона на предстоящих выборах.
Он рассуждал о моральном законе, свободе, достоинстве человека, возникающих трудностях и противоречиях. Многие из его постулатов легко найдут применения в современном мире", - добавил заведующий кафедрой истории зарубежной философии РГГУ, доктор философских наук Алексей Круглов. Канта" Многие ученые на конгрессе сошлись во мнении, что полярные мнения относительно философии Канта идеально отражают дух работ мыслителя. Ведь он всегда призывал думать своим умом, а любое критическое высказывание создает почву для обсуждения.
В этом, собственно, заключается особенность русского взгляда на Канта. Ведь, несмотря на его популярность, слепых фанатов мыслителя в нашей стране никогда не было. Даже те, кто относился к нему с большой симпатией, полагали, что Канта нужно преодолевать, расширять, дополнять и цитировать. Такой подход подтверждает, что дело философа живет и процветает по сей день.
Kant was born in 1724 in Koenigsberg present-day Kaliningrad , which belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia before later becoming part of the Russian Empire. The philosopher, famous for his work on ethics, aesthetics and philosophical ontology, is rightly considered one of the pillars of German classical philosophy.
Though he is as undeniably German as the Nord Stream pipeline, Putin and anyone else anywhere has a right to quote him morning, noon and night. Though Kant is as German as Tolstoy, who regarded himself as a philosopher and not a writer, is Russian, their brilliance belongs to the world. Scholz, in other words, is free to quote Tolstoy, once, of course, he first learns to read. Putin, as it happens, spent much of his working life in Germany and he speaks the language of Kant, Schiller and Goethe at least as fluently as Scholz which is, admittedly, a low bar. Not only that but Putin has been praising and quoting Kant for decades and has even gone so far as saying that the philosopher should be made an official symbol of Kaliningrad Region.
To discover Follow information on the war in Ukraine with the Figaro application But a geographer will see it as a sign of an old grudge.
Because, at the time, this enclave was not Russian, but constituted the eastern slope of Prussia, a region fortified by the Teutonic knights from the 13th century. As "one of the founding fathers of the modern West" , Immanuel Kant "laid the foundations of classical German philosophy" , cutting it off from , he explains quite generally, without say more about these values.
Emmanuel Kant, no place to chance!
Иммануи́л Кант — немецкий философ, один из центральных мыслителей эпохи Просвещения. Всесторонние и систематические работы Канта в области эпистемологии, метафизики. Kant observed that men formed states to constrain their passions, but that each state sought to preserve its absolute freedom, even at the cost of “a lawless state of savagery.”. Иммануил Кант-немецкий философ, родоначальник немецкой классической философии, стоящий на грани эпох Просвещения и Романтизма. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) is the central figure in modern philosophy. He synthesized early modern rationalism and empiricism, set the terms for much of nineteenth and twentieth century philosophy. Name: Emmanuel Kant Duarte. Type: User. Bio: Learning a little piece of code every day and drinking coffee. Hi there, my name is Emmanuel Kant Duarte and welcome to my profile. Хиты и новинки в хорошем качестве. Чтобы скачать песни исполнителя Immanuel Kant, установите приложение Звук и слушайте бесплатно оффлайн и онлайн по подписке Прайм.
Ведущие ученые мира выступили с докладами на Международном Кантовском конгрессе
This is called exploitation, and using unconsenting human beings as a means to an end. Jimmy thinks its funny. Of course, any drama that Gibson directs pales in comparison to his own behind-the-scenes odyssey: the story of an odious individual who, after years on the outskirts of Hollywood, has somehow managed to fight his way back into the mainstream. Have some damn respect for those who did risked their lives incredible things so hacks like you can write garbage like that and be paid for it, you stupid, stupid fool.
Также, по его словам, одна из серьезнейших угроз для существования Европы — ее собственная деморализация. Мы не такие, как остальные. Мы никогда не должны забывать об этом. Европа не просто кусок земли — это концепция человечества", — подчеркнул Эммануэль Макрон. Россия вынуждает Макрона вновь призывать к "европейскому кредиту" ради инвестиций в вооружениеВо время выступления в Сорбонне Эммануэль Макрон затронул вопрос безопасности Европы из-за "угрозы со стороны России", пишет Le Figaro.
Французский президент в очередной раз громко заявил, что континенту необходимо вооружаться. Читатели издания не оценили эту воинственность — и кое-чем Макрона пристыдили. Речь об идеологии, которая, как ее ни маскировали, по своей сути является опасной, ксенофобской, империалистической и милитаристской. Многочисленные американские войны наглядно демонстрируют последствия этой идеологии. Эммануэль Макрон, по-видимому, хотел бы скопировать модель и перенести ее на Европу. При этом он понимает, что вассальный статус Европы в отношениях с США, — серьезное препятствие к реализации этой задумки. Правда, как я уже писал, вассальный статус не мешает Макрону, когда, по его мнению, не время возмущаться, и движут им в эти моменты исключительно французские, а не европейские интересы. Кроме того, слова о том, что Европа "особенная", конечно, справедливы, но не в том смысле или не только в том, о котором говорит французский президент.
Ведь Европа — колыбель колониализма, тяжелой и жестокой эксплуатации остального мира. Вспомним, что именно Франция была одним из лидеров этого порядка при всех ее прогрессивных достижениях, которые у нее не отнять, но которые ее и не оправдывают. Сейчас постепенно освобождаются некоторые страны Западной Африки, которые еще долго после формального обретения самостоятельности оставались под косвенным французским экономическим и политическим контролем. Восстания в таких странах, как Буркина-Фасо, Нигер, Мали, и даже демократический переворот в Сенегале показывают ослабление французского влияния, а значит, и ограничение возможностей Парижа эксплуатировать эти бедные, но богатые ресурсами, африканские страны. Понятно, что французскую элиту устраивает нарратив о том, что все это происходит из-за "российского влияния", хотя это мнение далеко от истины.
Kant was turned down for the same position in 1758. In order to inaugurate his new position, Kant also wrote one more Latin dissertation: Concerning the Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible World 1770 , which is known as the Inaugural Dissertation. Inspired by Crusius and the Swiss natural philosopher Johann Heinrich Lambert 1728—1777 , Kant distinguishes between two fundamental powers of cognition, sensibility and understanding intelligence , where the Leibniz-Wolffians regarded understanding intellect as the only fundamental power. Moreover, as the title of the Inaugural Dissertation indicates, Kant argues that sensibility and understanding are directed at two different worlds: sensibility gives us access to the sensible world, while understanding enables us to grasp a distinct intelligible world. The Inaugural Dissertation thus develops a form of Platonism; and it rejects the view of British sentimentalists that moral judgments are based on feelings of pleasure or pain, since Kant now holds that moral judgments are based on pure understanding alone. After 1770 Kant never surrendered the views that sensibility and understanding are distinct powers of cognition, that space and time are subjective forms of human sensibility, and that moral judgments are based on pure understanding or reason alone. But his embrace of Platonism in the Inaugural Dissertation was short-lived. He soon denied that our understanding is capable of insight into an intelligible world, which cleared the path toward his mature position in the Critique of Pure Reason 1781 , according to which the understanding like sensibility supplies forms that structure our experience of the sensible world, to which human knowledge is limited, while the intelligible or noumenal world is strictly unknowable to us. Kant spent a decade working on the Critique of Pure Reason and published nothing else of significance between 1770 and 1781. Kant also published a number of important essays in this period, including Idea for a Universal History With a Cosmopolitan Aim 1784 and Conjectural Beginning of Human History 1786 , his main contributions to the philosophy of history; An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment? Jacobi 1743—1819 accused the recently deceased G. Lessing 1729—1781 of Spinozism. With these works Kant secured international fame and came to dominate German philosophy in the late 1780s. But in 1790 he announced that the Critique of the Power of Judgment brought his critical enterprise to an end 5:170. By then K. In 1794 his chair at Jena passed to J. Kant retired from teaching in 1796. For nearly two decades he had lived a highly disciplined life focused primarily on completing his philosophical system, which began to take definite shape in his mind only in middle age. After retiring he came to believe that there was a gap in this system separating the metaphysical foundations of natural science from physics itself, and he set out to close this gap in a series of notes that postulate the existence of an ether or caloric matter. Kant died February 12, 1804, just short of his eightieth birthday. See also Bxiv; and 4:255—257. Thus metaphysics for Kant concerns a priori knowledge, or knowledge whose justification does not depend on experience; and he associates a priori knowledge with reason. The project of the Critique is to examine whether, how, and to what extent human reason is capable of a priori knowledge. The Enlightenment was a reaction to the rise and successes of modern science in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The spectacular achievements of Newton in particular engendered widespread confidence and optimism about the power of human reason to control nature and to improve human life. One effect of this new confidence in reason was that traditional authorities were increasingly questioned. Why should we need political or religious authorities to tell us how to live or what to believe, if each of us has the capacity to figure these things out for ourselves? Kant expresses this Enlightenment commitment to the sovereignty of reason in the Critique: Our age is the age of criticism, to which everything must submit. Religion through its holiness and legislation through its majesty commonly seek to exempt themselves from it. But in this way they excite a just suspicion against themselves, and cannot lay claim to that unfeigned respect that reason grants only to that which has been able to withstand its free and public examination. Axi Enlightenment is about thinking for oneself rather than letting others think for you, according to What is Enlightenment? In this essay, Kant also expresses the Enlightenment faith in the inevitability of progress. A few independent thinkers will gradually inspire a broader cultural movement, which ultimately will lead to greater freedom of action and governmental reform. The problem is that to some it seemed unclear whether progress would in fact ensue if reason enjoyed full sovereignty over traditional authorities; or whether unaided reasoning would instead lead straight to materialism, fatalism, atheism, skepticism Bxxxiv , or even libertinism and authoritarianism 8:146. The Enlightenment commitment to the sovereignty of reason was tied to the expectation that it would not lead to any of these consequences but instead would support certain key beliefs that tradition had always sanctioned. Crucially, these included belief in God, the soul, freedom, and the compatibility of science with morality and religion. Although a few intellectuals rejected some or all of these beliefs, the general spirit of the Enlightenment was not so radical. The Enlightenment was about replacing traditional authorities with the authority of individual human reason, but it was not about overturning traditional moral and religious beliefs. Yet the original inspiration for the Enlightenment was the new physics, which was mechanistic. If nature is entirely governed by mechanistic, causal laws, then it may seem that there is no room for freedom, a soul, or anything but matter in motion. This threatened the traditional view that morality requires freedom. We must be free in order to choose what is right over what is wrong, because otherwise we cannot be held responsible. It also threatened the traditional religious belief in a soul that can survive death or be resurrected in an afterlife. So modern science, the pride of the Enlightenment, the source of its optimism about the powers of human reason, threatened to undermine traditional moral and religious beliefs that free rational thought was expected to support. This was the main intellectual crisis of the Enlightenment. In other words, free rational inquiry adequately supports all of these essential human interests and shows them to be mutually consistent. So reason deserves the sovereignty attributed to it by the Enlightenment. The Inaugural Dissertation also tries to reconcile Newtonian science with traditional morality and religion in a way, but its strategy is different from that of the Critique. According to the Inaugural Dissertation, Newtonian science is true of the sensible world, to which sensibility gives us access; and the understanding grasps principles of divine and moral perfection in a distinct intelligible world, which are paradigms for measuring everything in the sensible world. So on this view our knowledge of the intelligible world is a priori because it does not depend on sensibility, and this a priori knowledge furnishes principles for judging the sensible world because in some way the sensible world itself conforms to or imitates the intelligible world. Soon after writing the Inaugural Dissertation, however, Kant expressed doubts about this view. As he explained in a February 21, 1772 letter to his friend and former student, Marcus Herz: In my dissertation I was content to explain the nature of intellectual representations in a merely negative way, namely, to state that they were not modifications of the soul brought about by the object. However, I silently passed over the further question of how a representation that refers to an object without being in any way affected by it can be possible…. And if such intellectual representations depend on our inner activity, whence comes the agreement that they are supposed to have with objects — objects that are nevertheless not possibly produced thereby? The position of the Inaugural Dissertation is that the intelligible world is independent of the human understanding and of the sensible world, both of which in different ways conform to the intelligible world. But, leaving aside questions about what it means for the sensible world to conform to an intelligible world, how is it possible for the human understanding to conform to or grasp an intelligible world? If the intelligible world is independent of our understanding, then it seems that we could grasp it only if we are passively affected by it in some way. So the only way we could grasp an intelligible world that is independent of us is through sensibility, which means that our knowledge of it could not be a priori. The pure understanding alone could at best enable us to form representations of an intelligible world. Such a priori intellectual representations could well be figments of the brain that do not correspond to anything independent of the human mind. In any case, it is completely mysterious how there might come to be a correspondence between purely intellectual representations and an independent intelligible world. But the Critique gives a far more modest and yet revolutionary account of a priori knowledge. This turned out to be a dead end, and Kant never again maintained that we can have a priori knowledge about an intelligible world precisely because such a world would be entirely independent of us. The sensible world, or the world of appearances, is constructed by the human mind from a combination of sensory matter that we receive passively and a priori forms that are supplied by our cognitive faculties. We can have a priori knowledge only about aspects of the sensible world that reflect the a priori forms supplied by our cognitive faculties. So according to the Critique, a priori knowledge is possible only if and to the extent that the sensible world itself depends on the way the human mind structures its experience. Kant characterizes this new constructivist view of experience in the Critique through an analogy with the revolution wrought by Copernicus in astronomy: Up to now it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform to the objects; but all attempts to find out something about them a priori through concepts that would extend our cognition have, on this presupposition, come to nothing. Hence let us once try whether we do not get farther with the problems of metaphysics by assuming that the objects must conform to our cognition, which would agree better with the requested possibility of an a priori cognition of them, which is to establish something about objects before they are given to us. This would be just like the first thoughts of Copernicus, who, when he did not make good progress in the explanation of the celestial motions if he assumed that the entire celestial host revolves around the observer, tried to see if he might not have greater success if he made the observer revolve and left the stars at rest. Now in metaphysics we can try in a similar way regarding the intuition of objects. If intuition has to conform to the constitution of the objects, then I do not see how we can know anything of them a priori; but if the object as an object of the senses conforms to the constitution of our faculty of intuition, then I can very well represent this possibility to myself. Yet because I cannot stop with these intuitions, if they are to become cognitions, but must refer them as representations to something as their object and determine this object through them, I can assume either that the concepts through which I bring about this determination also conform to the objects, and then I am once again in the same difficulty about how I could know anything about them a priori, or else I assume that the objects, or what is the same thing, the experience in which alone they can be cognized as given objects conforms to those concepts, in which case I immediately see an easier way out of the difficulty, since experience itself is a kind of cognition requiring the understanding, whose rule I have to presuppose in myself before any object is given to me, hence a priori, which rule is expressed in concepts a priori, to which all objects of experience must therefore necessarily conform, and with which they must agree. Bxvi—xviii As this passage suggests, what Kant has changed in the Critique is primarily his view about the role and powers of the understanding, since he already held in the Inaugural Dissertation that sensibility contributes the forms of space and time — which he calls pure or a priori intuitions 2:397 — to our cognition of the sensible world. But the Critique claims that pure understanding too, rather than giving us insight into an intelligible world, is limited to providing forms — which he calls pure or a priori concepts — that structure our cognition of the sensible world. So now both sensibility and understanding work together to construct cognition of the sensible world, which therefore conforms to the a priori forms that are supplied by our cognitive faculties: the a priori intuitions of sensibility and the a priori concepts of the understanding. This account is analogous to the heliocentric revolution of Copernicus in astronomy because both require contributions from the observer to be factored into explanations of phenomena, although neither reduces phenomena to the contributions of observers alone. For Kant, analogously, the phenomena of human experience depend on both the sensory data that we receive passively through sensibility and the way our mind actively processes this data according to its own a priori rules. These rules supply the general framework in which the sensible world and all the objects or phenomena in it appear to us. So the sensible world and its phenomena are not entirely independent of the human mind, which contributes its basic structure. First, it gives Kant a new and ingenious way of placing modern science on an a priori foundation. In other words, the sensible world necessarily conforms to certain fundamental laws — such as that every event has a cause — because the human mind constructs it according to those laws. Moreover, we can identify those laws by reflecting on the conditions of possible experience, which reveals that it would be impossible for us to experience a world in which, for example, any given event fails to have a cause. From this Kant concludes that metaphysics is indeed possible in the sense that we can have a priori knowledge that the entire sensible world — not just our actual experience, but any possible human experience — necessarily conforms to certain laws. Kant calls this immanent metaphysics or the metaphysics of experience, because it deals with the essential principles that are immanent to human experience. In the Critique Kant thus rejects the insight into an intelligible world that he defended in the Inaugural Dissertation, and he now claims that rejecting knowledge about things in themselves is necessary for reconciling science with traditional morality and religion. This is because he claims that belief in God, freedom, and immortality have a strictly moral basis, and yet adopting these beliefs on moral grounds would be unjustified if we could know that they were false. Restricting knowledge to appearances and relegating God and the soul to an unknowable realm of things in themselves guarantees that it is impossible to disprove claims about God and the freedom or immortality of the soul, which moral arguments may therefore justify us in believing. Moreover, the determinism of modern science no longer threatens the freedom required by traditional morality, because science and therefore determinism apply only to appearances, and there is room for freedom in the realm of things in themselves, where the self or soul is located. We cannot know theoretically that we are free, because we cannot know anything about things in themselves. In this way, Kant replaces transcendent metaphysics with a new practical science that he calls the metaphysics of morals. Transcendental idealism Perhaps the central and most controversial thesis of the Critique of Pure Reason is that human beings experience only appearances, not things in themselves; and that space and time are only subjective forms of human intuition that would not subsist in themselves if one were to abstract from all subjective conditions of human intuition. Kant calls this thesis transcendental idealism. What may be the case with objects in themselves and abstracted from all this receptivity of our sensibility remains entirely unknown to us. We are acquainted with nothing except our way of perceiving them, which is peculiar to us, and which therefore does not necessarily pertain to every being, though to be sure it pertains to every human being. We are concerned solely with this. Space and time are its pure forms, sensation in general its matter.
В бюллетенях голосования "Великие имена России", раздаваемых в самолётах, немецкого философа Иммануила Канта называют "Эммануилом". Об этом 21 ноября 2018 года сообщила в Facebook пассажир одного из самолётов. Выходит, организаторы присвоения имени аэропорту Храброво столкнулись с трудностями написания имени немецкого философа. Несмотря на трудности в орфографии в самолётах, Кант по-прежнему лидирует, опережая даже самого резвого ближайшего конкурента - императрицу Елизавету Петровну.